B. HS. Home. § ii. ↔︎ § iv.
CONTENTS
Introduction.
The layout of the grammar.
The Chinese language.
1. Nouns and nominalisations.
1.1 Nouns and categorisation.
1.1.1 Common nouns.
1.1.2 Material nouns.
1.1.3 Collective nouns.
1.1.4 Abstract nouns.
1.1.5 Proper nouns.
1.1.6 Temporal and spatial nouns.
1.2 Nouns and reference.
1.2.1 Definite or indefinite/generic reference.
1.2.2 Exclusive reference.
1.3 Nouns and plurality.
1.4 Nouns and syntactic functions.
1.5 Nouns and semantic fields.
1.6 Nominalisations.
2 Numerals and measures.
24
2.1
Digits, units and cardinal numbers
24
2.2
Ordinals
26
2.3
Enumeration
27
Contents 2.4 Fractions, percentages and decimals 28
2.4.1 Fractions 28
2.4.2 Percentages 29
2.4.3 Decimals 29
2.5 Imprecise numbers, halves and multiples 29
2.5.1 Imprecise numbers ( yueshii) 29
2.5.2 Halves 33
2.5.3 Multiples 34
2.5.4 Additionals 34
2.6 Mathematical symbols and simple arithmetic equations 35
2.7 The multiplication table 35
2.8 Measure words 36
2.8.1 Standard measures 36
2.8.2 Classifying measures 41
2.9 Measure words and other attributives 52
2.10 Reduplication of measure words 54
2.11 Missing measure words 55
2.12 Disyllabic measure words 58
2.13 Compound measure words 58
2.14 Duration and frequency measures 58
3 Pronouns, pronominals and pro-words 59
3.1 Personal pronouns 59
3.2 Demonstrative pronouns 60
3.3 Interrogative pronouns 63
3.4 Indefinite pronouns 65
3.5 Enumerative pronouns 67
3.6 Pronominals 68
3.7 Pro-words 70
4 Adjectives as attributives and predicatives 72
4.1 Adjectives in Chinese 72
4.2 Qualifiers or quantifiers 73
4.3 Degree adverbs and complements 74
4.4 The descriptive indicator fit) de 77
4.5 Attributives and predicatives 80
4.5.1 Adjectives and their functional capacity 80
4.5.2 Attributive-only adjectives 82
4.5.3 Predicative-only adjectives 83
4.6 Various inherent features of adjectives 84
vi 4.6.1 Gradable vs non-gradable 84
4.6.2 Conditional vs unconditional 86
4.6.3 Derivable vs non-derivable
86
4.6.4 Reduplicable vs non-reduplicable
86
4.6.5 Derogatory vs commendatory
88
4.7
Adjectives and valency
89
4.8
Adjectives and collocation
89
4.9
Adjectives and comparison
91
Attributives other than adjectives
93
5.1
The different forms of attributive
94
5.1.1 Nouns
94
5.1.2 Verbs
95
5.1.3 Clauses
5.1.4 Prepositional or postpositional phrases
96
with de
5.1.5 Numerals or demonstratives and
96
measure words
97
5.1.6 Pronouns
98
5.1.7 Idioms
99
5.2
The sequencing of attributives
100
5.3
Combination, embedding and delaying
105
5.3.1 Commas or conjunctions
105
5.3.2 Tonger attributives
106
Action verbs
108
6.1
Transitive and intransitive
109
6.2
Dynamic and static differences
111
6.3
Dative verbs
112
6.4
Causative verbs
116
6.5
Coverbs
120
6.6
Agreement between the subject and its action
verb predicate
120
6.7
Agreement between an action verb and its object
122
6.8
Action verbs: completion and continuation
123
6.8.1 The completion aspect
124
6.8.2 The continuation aspect
126
6.9
Action verbs: manner described and experience
explained
128
6.9.1 Manner of existence with zhe
6.9.2 Persistent posture or continuous
129
movement with zhe
129
6.9.3 Accompanying manner with zhe
130
6.9.4 Experience and ii guo
131
Contents
vii
Contents
I
viii
7 Action verbs and time 133
7.1
Point of time
133
7.2
Duration
135
7.3
Brief duration
138
7.4
Frequency
140
7.5
15 mei ‘every’
141
7.6
Other time expressions
142
7.7
Negation and time reference
144
7.7.1 Negative expository sentences
144
7.7.2 Negative narrative sentences
145
7.7.3 Negative descriptive sentences
146
Action verbs and locations
147
8.1
Location expressions and position indicators
147
8.2
zai with location expressions
149
8.3
Location expressions as sentence terminators
151
8.4
Location expressions as sentence beginners
152
8.5
Direction indicators
8.5.1 Simple direction indicators lai
155
‘to come’ and qu ‘to go’
155
8.5.2 Disyllabic direction indicators
8.5.3 Direction indicators indicating meaning
156
other than direction
159
8.6
The destination indicator dao ‘to arrive’
161
Adverbials
163
9.1
Restrictive adverbials
164
9.1.1 Time expressions
164
9.1.2 Monosyllabic referential adverbs
166
9.2
Descriptive adverbials
168
9.3
Initiator-oriented or action-oriented descriptive
adverbials
170
9.4
Omission of the descriptive marker ilk de
173
9.5
Relative position of adverbials
174
Complements
177
10.1
Resultative complements
177
10.1.1 Adjectival resultative complements
178
10.1.2 Verbal resultative complements
10.1.3 Resultative complements in JG ba, fi bei
179
and notional passive constructions
179
10.1.4 Resultative complements and intended/expected
outcomes in imperative sentences
180
10.2
Potential complements
181
10.2.1 Adjectival potential complements
181
10.2.2 Verbal potential complements
181
10.2.3 Potential directional complements
10.2.4 Figurative uses and other features of
182
resultative complements
182
10.3
Complements of manner and consequential state
183
10.4
Complements of direction
186
10.4.1 Literal uses
186
10.4.2 Figurative uses
187
Coverbs
189
11.1
Peer characteristics
190
11.1.1 Registral
190
11.1.2 Collocational
191
11.1.3 Governmental
191
11.1.4 Prosodic
192
11.1.5 Sequential
192
11.1.6 Usage
193
11.2
Semantic categories
194
11.2.1 Direction and position
194
11.2.2 Time
205
11.2.3 With, for or by someone or something
211
11.2.4 Instrument and vehicle
215
11.2.5 By means of, in accordance with, etc.
217
11.2.6 Grammatical operators
225
11.3
Coverbal positions
229
JE ba constructions
233
12.1
The structural features of a ba construction
233
12.1.1 Definite-referenced object
234
12.1.2 The elements after the main verb
234
12.1.3 The main verb in a JE ba construction
238
12.2
Intentionality in a iE ba construction
238
12.3
JE ba constructions and imperatives
240
12.4
A particular feature of ba constructions in
evaluative sentences
241
12.5
ba constructions in immediate contexts and
narratives
242
12.6
IE ba versus M- jiang
243
Contents 1 3 The passive voice and ® faei constructions 244
13.1 Three forms of passive 244
13.2 The notional passive 245
13.3 The formal passive 253
13.3.1 Salient features 253
13.3.2 Basic characteristics 254
13.3.3 Imperatives 256
13.3.4 Whole-part relationships 256
13.3.5 A classical variant 257
13.4 The lexical passive 257
14 Chain constructions 263
14.1 The first verb introducing a coverbal phrase
that indicates location, etc. 264
14.2 The second verb indicating purpose 265
14.3 The first verb indicating reason or cause 270
14.4 The first verb expressing accompanying manner
or circumstances 272
14.5 Consecutive actions 275
14.6 Simultaneous actions 278
14.7 An emphatic chain construction 278
14.8 An articulated chain construction 280
1 5 The verb H sh i 282
15.1 plk shi introducing a predicative 282
15.2 Predicatives with an optional *1 shi 286
15.3 ^ shi indicating existence 288
15.4 shi expressing emphasis 290
15.5 shi assessing an overall situation 295
15.6 Jk shi forming part of a connector 296
15.7 Jk shi as a pivot 296
16 The verb W you 298
16.1 W you indicating possession 298
16.2 W you indicating existence 300
16.3 W you introducing subjects and time or location
expressions of indefinite reference 301
16.4 W you specifying degree or extent 303
16.5 W you introducing comparison 304
x 16.6 W you as an adjectival formative 305
16.7 W you expressing ideas of development and change 305
16.8 W you introducing a conditional clause 305
16.9 'S(W) mei(you) as negator of action verbs 306
16.9.1 Negator of past action/experience 306
16.9.2 Affirmative-negative questions and past
action/experience 306
16.9.3 Another form of the question 307
16.10 W you to indicate ‘part of’ 307
16.11 W you as the first verb in a sequence 308
1 7 Verbs that take verbal or clausal objects 3 1 0
17.1 Intention and aspiration 311
17.1.1 Positive intentions and aspirations 311
17.1.2 Negative intentions 312
17.1.3 Uncertain aspirations 313
17.1.4 Group intentions 313
17.1.5 Voiced intentions 314
17.1.6 Intentions put into practice 314
17.1.7 Frustration and compulsion 315
17.2 Attitudes 315
17.3 Knowing and thinking 316
17.4 Appearance and value 317
17.5 Dummy verbs 318
18 Modal verbs 320
18.1 Semantic categories of modal verbs 320
18.1.1 Permission 320
18.1.2 Possibility 321
18.1.3 Probability 322
18.1.4 Ability or skill 324
18.1.5 Obligation 324
18.1.6 Wishing 326
18.1.7 Willingness 328
18.1.8 Necessity 328
18.1.9 Boldness 329
18.2 Speaker perspective of modal verbs 329
18.3 Negation of modal verbs 330
18.4 Grammatical orientation of modal verbs 332
Contents
xi
Contents |9 Telescopic constructions 333
19.1 Topic and sub-topic 333
19.2 Topic and subject 335
19.3 ‘Subject + predicate’ as topic 337
19.4 ‘(Subject) + predicate’ inserted between ‘topic’
and ‘comment’ 338
20 Narration, description, exposition and
evaluation 340
20.1 Narrative sentences 341
20.2 Descriptive sentences 347
20.3 Expository sentences 350
20.3.1 Topic-comment expository sentences 350
20.3.2 Subject-predicate expository sentences 352
20.3.3 Negation of expository sentences 354
20.4 Evaluative sentences 355
20.4.1 The modal verb evaluative 355
20.4.2 The modified adjective/complement
evaluative 356
20.5 Comparisons between sentence types 356
20.6 Concluding remarks 359
21 T /e-expository sentences 361
21.1 Change or reversal of a previous situation 362
21.2 Subjective endorsement behind the objective
explanation 365
21.3 Summing up after a series of actions 367
21.4 A rhythmic necessity for monosyllabic verbs or
verbalised adjectives 368
21.5 Two or three functions in one 369
21.6 /e-expository sentences and the four basic
sentence types 370
21.6.1 Expository sentences 370
21.6.2 Narrative sentences 371
21.6.3 Descriptive sentences 372
21.6.4 Evaluative sentences 373
xii
22
23
Conjunctions and conjunctives
375
22.1
Conjunctions that link words or phrases
375
22.1.1
The four conjunctions
375
22.1.2
TO er ‘also’
376
22.1.3
bing ‘also’
377
22.2
Clausal conjunctions and conjunctives
377
22.3
Clausal conjunctions and conjunctives in
semantic categories
378
22.3.1
Giving reasons: because, because of,
therefore
379
22.3.2
Making inferences: since
380
22.3.3
Expressing supposition: if
381
22.3.4
Stating conditions: only if, only when
383
22.3.5
Offering concessions: though,
although, yet
384
22.3.6
Defying setbacks: no matter
386
22.3.7
Clarifying time: when, as soon as,
after, before, etc.
387
22.3.8
Indicating preference: would rather
389
22.3.9
Elucidating one’s purpose: in order to,
so as to, so as not to
390
22.3.10
Encoding miscellaneous relational
concepts: apart from, let alone, otherwise
391
22.4
Correlations and parallels
392
22.5
Zero connectives
393
Interrogative sentences
395
23.1
Yes-no questions
395
23.2
Surmise questions
397
23.3
Suggestions in the form of questions
398
23.4
Alternative questions
399
23.5
Affirmative-negative questions
399
23.6
Question-word questions
401
23.7
Follow-
up queries with RjS ne
404
23.8
Rhetorical questions
405
23.9
Exclamatory questions
406
24
Contents
Imperatives and exclamations 407
24.1 Verbs in imperatives restricted to voluntary actions 408
24.2 Imperatives: beginners and end-particles 408
24.3 Spoken and written requests 412
24.4 Interjections and exclamatory expressions 414
24.5 Exclamations: particles and degree adverbials or
complements 420
25 Abbreviations and omissions
423
25.1 Abbreviations in answers to questions 423
25.2 Abbreviations in face-to-face exchanges 424
25.3 Abbreviations in comparisons 425
25.4 The hidden presence of the narrator in a narrative 425
25.5 Omissions in a discourse 426
Prosody and syntax
429
26.1
Setting the scene: an experiement with yl used
similarly to an indefinite article in English
429
26.2
End weight: the balance between the verb and
its direct object
432
26.2.1
The direct object as the end weight
432
26.2.2
The verb itself carries the end weight
434
26.2.3
Intransitive verbs at the end of sentences
436
26.2.4
Conclusion
437
26.3
The disyllabic rhythmic pattern of Chinese speech
437
26.3.1
The disyllabic rhythmic difference
between poetry and prose
438
26.3.2
Different words in the vocabulary
play different roles in the disyllabic
rhythmic structure
439
26.3.3
How disyllabic and monosyllabic
content and form words intertwine to
form a disyllabic rhythmic unit
441
26.4
Rhythms of commonly discernible syntactic patterns
445
26.4.1
‘Verb + object’ patterns
445
26.4.2
Verbal reduplications
446
26.4.3
The ‘attributive + headword’ patterns
446
26.5
Echoing patterns of singular rhythms
447
26.6
Two paragraphs by way of conclusion
448
27 Stylistic considerations in syntactic Contents
constructions 453
27.1 The presentational factor 453
27.1.1 Layered or sequential images 454
27.1.2 Reiteration for cumulative effect 455
27.1.3 Factorisation 457
27.1.4 Parallel matching 458
27.1.5 Inversion: attributives or adverbials
after their headwords 459
27.2 The rhetorical factor 460
27.2.1 Coupling: XY, XY 460
27.2.2 Progression: XY, XY, XY . . . 462
27.2.3 Echoing 463
27.2.4 Alternation: long and short sentences 464
27.3 What lies beyond? 465
28 Morphology and syntax (I) 466
28.1 Monosyllabic lexemes and morphemes of the lexicon 466
28.1.1 Where does the monosyllabic part of the
lexicon belong? 467
28.2 An overall view of the syntactically oriented part
of the lexicon 472
28.2.1 Syntactically oriented disyllabic lexemes 472
28.2.2 Modificational lexemes 482
28.2.3 Predicational lexemes 488
28.2.4 Governmental lexemes 492
28.2.5 Complemental lexemes 496
28.3 Syntactically oriented trisyllabic lexemes and
expressions 499
28.4 Syntactically oriented quadrisyllable
(or multisyllabic) words, expressions and idioms 503
28.4.1 Quadrisyllable (or multisyllabic) words
and expressions 503
28.4.2 Quadrisyllable idioms 505
28.5 Syntactically oriented multisyllabic sayings 508
xv
Contents 29 Morphology and syntax (II) 510
29.1 Sentential formulation devices 510
29.1.1 SVO word order 510
29.1.2 Formalized sets of grammatical words as
articulators 513
29.1.3 An illustrative example 514
29.2 A close examination of the interaction between
the microsyntax of lexemic formation and the
macrosyntax of sentential formulation 517
29.2.1 The syntactic behaviour of lexemes of the
juxtapositional type 518
29.2.2 The syntactic behaviour of lexemes
of the modificational type 520
29.2.3 The syntactic behaviour of lexemes
of the predicational type 523
29.2.4 The syntactic behaviour of lexemes
of the governmental type 529
29.2.5 The syntactic behaviour of lexemes
of the complemental type 537
29.3 Syntactic economy and retrieval system 547
30 Intralingual transpositions 551
30.1 Options influenced by different modes of expression 551
30.1.1 Narrating an action or stating a fact 552
30.1.2 The core structure behind ffi ba and ® bei 554
30.1.3 Transition from a narrative into a
description 557
30.1.4 Describing a static or dynamic
phenomenon 559
30.2 Choices made through stylistic considerations 562
30.2.1 Stylistic variations using verbs other
than *1 shi 563
30.2.2 Using the expository generator JIT-zil
shi bu shi ‘is it the case that’ as an alternative 566
30.3 Word order guided by difference in meaning,
emphasis or focus 569
30.3.1 Insight from structures used in an
apportioning exercise 570
30.3.2 A verb and its arguments 571
xvi 30.3.3 Dimensional measurements 575
30.3.4 shi used to pinpoint time, place, Contents
purpose, reason, etc.
577
30.3.5
The blurred juncture between negation
and affirmation
579
30.3.6
Noun becoming adjective or verb:
a word class shift
580
30.4
Synonymy that affects word order, formality,
collocation, mode of expression, individual
speech habit, etc.
580
3 1 Interlingual conversions
583
31.1
Context-dependent economy vs strict structural
completeness
585
31.1.1
Context- or cotext-dependent omission
of subjects and objects
586
31.1.2
Possessive indicators not indicating actual
possession are superfluous in Chinese
589
31.1.3
No syntactic device is necessary to link a
non-(pro)nominal subject or object to the
predicate verb
591
31.1.4
Habitual omission of conjunctions and
connectives
594
31.2
A time-sequenced string of verb-centred
constructions vs an organized combination of verbs,
participles, gerunds, infinitives, prepositions, etc.
597
31.3
Chinese verbs vs English prepositions
602
31.4
Chinese bamboos vs English trees
607
31.5
The inbuilt logic of the Chinese bamboo
609
 |
| Testo online in I.A.O.S. |
Introduction.
The layout of the grammar.
The Chinese language.
1. Nouns and nominalisations.
1.1 Nouns and categorisation.
1.1.1 Common nouns.
1.1.2 Material nouns.
1.1.3 Collective nouns.
1.1.4 Abstract nouns.
1.1.5 Proper nouns.
1.1.6 Temporal and spatial nouns.
1.2 Nouns and reference.
1.2.1 Definite or indefinite/generic reference.
1.2.2 Exclusive reference.
1.3 Nouns and plurality.
1.4 Nouns and syntactic functions.
1.5 Nouns and semantic fields.
1.6 Nominalisations.
2 Numerals and measures.
24
2.1
Digits, units and cardinal numbers
24
2.2
Ordinals
26
2.3
Enumeration
27
Contents 2.4 Fractions, percentages and decimals 28
2.4.1 Fractions 28
2.4.2 Percentages 29
2.4.3 Decimals 29
2.5 Imprecise numbers, halves and multiples 29
2.5.1 Imprecise numbers ( yueshii) 29
2.5.2 Halves 33
2.5.3 Multiples 34
2.5.4 Additionals 34
2.6 Mathematical symbols and simple arithmetic equations 35
2.7 The multiplication table 35
2.8 Measure words 36
2.8.1 Standard measures 36
2.8.2 Classifying measures 41
2.9 Measure words and other attributives 52
2.10 Reduplication of measure words 54
2.11 Missing measure words 55
2.12 Disyllabic measure words 58
2.13 Compound measure words 58
2.14 Duration and frequency measures 58
3 Pronouns, pronominals and pro-words 59
3.1 Personal pronouns 59
3.2 Demonstrative pronouns 60
3.3 Interrogative pronouns 63
3.4 Indefinite pronouns 65
3.5 Enumerative pronouns 67
3.6 Pronominals 68
3.7 Pro-words 70
4 Adjectives as attributives and predicatives 72
4.1 Adjectives in Chinese 72
4.2 Qualifiers or quantifiers 73
4.3 Degree adverbs and complements 74
4.4 The descriptive indicator fit) de 77
4.5 Attributives and predicatives 80
4.5.1 Adjectives and their functional capacity 80
4.5.2 Attributive-only adjectives 82
4.5.3 Predicative-only adjectives 83
4.6 Various inherent features of adjectives 84
vi 4.6.1 Gradable vs non-gradable 84
4.6.2 Conditional vs unconditional 86
4.6.3 Derivable vs non-derivable
86
4.6.4 Reduplicable vs non-reduplicable
86
4.6.5 Derogatory vs commendatory
88
4.7
Adjectives and valency
89
4.8
Adjectives and collocation
89
4.9
Adjectives and comparison
91
Attributives other than adjectives
93
5.1
The different forms of attributive
94
5.1.1 Nouns
94
5.1.2 Verbs
95
5.1.3 Clauses
5.1.4 Prepositional or postpositional phrases
96
with de
5.1.5 Numerals or demonstratives and
96
measure words
97
5.1.6 Pronouns
98
5.1.7 Idioms
99
5.2
The sequencing of attributives
100
5.3
Combination, embedding and delaying
105
5.3.1 Commas or conjunctions
105
5.3.2 Tonger attributives
106
Action verbs
108
6.1
Transitive and intransitive
109
6.2
Dynamic and static differences
111
6.3
Dative verbs
112
6.4
Causative verbs
116
6.5
Coverbs
120
6.6
Agreement between the subject and its action
verb predicate
120
6.7
Agreement between an action verb and its object
122
6.8
Action verbs: completion and continuation
123
6.8.1 The completion aspect
124
6.8.2 The continuation aspect
126
6.9
Action verbs: manner described and experience
explained
128
6.9.1 Manner of existence with zhe
6.9.2 Persistent posture or continuous
129
movement with zhe
129
6.9.3 Accompanying manner with zhe
130
6.9.4 Experience and ii guo
131
Contents
vii
Contents
I
viii
7 Action verbs and time 133
7.1
Point of time
133
7.2
Duration
135
7.3
Brief duration
138
7.4
Frequency
140
7.5
15 mei ‘every’
141
7.6
Other time expressions
142
7.7
Negation and time reference
144
7.7.1 Negative expository sentences
144
7.7.2 Negative narrative sentences
145
7.7.3 Negative descriptive sentences
146
Action verbs and locations
147
8.1
Location expressions and position indicators
147
8.2
zai with location expressions
149
8.3
Location expressions as sentence terminators
151
8.4
Location expressions as sentence beginners
152
8.5
Direction indicators
8.5.1 Simple direction indicators lai
155
‘to come’ and qu ‘to go’
155
8.5.2 Disyllabic direction indicators
8.5.3 Direction indicators indicating meaning
156
other than direction
159
8.6
The destination indicator dao ‘to arrive’
161
Adverbials
163
9.1
Restrictive adverbials
164
9.1.1 Time expressions
164
9.1.2 Monosyllabic referential adverbs
166
9.2
Descriptive adverbials
168
9.3
Initiator-oriented or action-oriented descriptive
adverbials
170
9.4
Omission of the descriptive marker ilk de
173
9.5
Relative position of adverbials
174
Complements
177
10.1
Resultative complements
177
10.1.1 Adjectival resultative complements
178
10.1.2 Verbal resultative complements
10.1.3 Resultative complements in JG ba, fi bei
179
and notional passive constructions
179
10.1.4 Resultative complements and intended/expected
outcomes in imperative sentences
180
10.2
Potential complements
181
10.2.1 Adjectival potential complements
181
10.2.2 Verbal potential complements
181
10.2.3 Potential directional complements
10.2.4 Figurative uses and other features of
182
resultative complements
182
10.3
Complements of manner and consequential state
183
10.4
Complements of direction
186
10.4.1 Literal uses
186
10.4.2 Figurative uses
187
Coverbs
189
11.1
Peer characteristics
190
11.1.1 Registral
190
11.1.2 Collocational
191
11.1.3 Governmental
191
11.1.4 Prosodic
192
11.1.5 Sequential
192
11.1.6 Usage
193
11.2
Semantic categories
194
11.2.1 Direction and position
194
11.2.2 Time
205
11.2.3 With, for or by someone or something
211
11.2.4 Instrument and vehicle
215
11.2.5 By means of, in accordance with, etc.
217
11.2.6 Grammatical operators
225
11.3
Coverbal positions
229
JE ba constructions
233
12.1
The structural features of a ba construction
233
12.1.1 Definite-referenced object
234
12.1.2 The elements after the main verb
234
12.1.3 The main verb in a JE ba construction
238
12.2
Intentionality in a iE ba construction
238
12.3
JE ba constructions and imperatives
240
12.4
A particular feature of ba constructions in
evaluative sentences
241
12.5
ba constructions in immediate contexts and
narratives
242
12.6
IE ba versus M- jiang
243
Contents 1 3 The passive voice and ® faei constructions 244
13.1 Three forms of passive 244
13.2 The notional passive 245
13.3 The formal passive 253
13.3.1 Salient features 253
13.3.2 Basic characteristics 254
13.3.3 Imperatives 256
13.3.4 Whole-part relationships 256
13.3.5 A classical variant 257
13.4 The lexical passive 257
14 Chain constructions 263
14.1 The first verb introducing a coverbal phrase
that indicates location, etc. 264
14.2 The second verb indicating purpose 265
14.3 The first verb indicating reason or cause 270
14.4 The first verb expressing accompanying manner
or circumstances 272
14.5 Consecutive actions 275
14.6 Simultaneous actions 278
14.7 An emphatic chain construction 278
14.8 An articulated chain construction 280
1 5 The verb H sh i 282
15.1 plk shi introducing a predicative 282
15.2 Predicatives with an optional *1 shi 286
15.3 ^ shi indicating existence 288
15.4 shi expressing emphasis 290
15.5 shi assessing an overall situation 295
15.6 Jk shi forming part of a connector 296
15.7 Jk shi as a pivot 296
16 The verb W you 298
16.1 W you indicating possession 298
16.2 W you indicating existence 300
16.3 W you introducing subjects and time or location
expressions of indefinite reference 301
16.4 W you specifying degree or extent 303
16.5 W you introducing comparison 304
x 16.6 W you as an adjectival formative 305
16.7 W you expressing ideas of development and change 305
16.8 W you introducing a conditional clause 305
16.9 'S(W) mei(you) as negator of action verbs 306
16.9.1 Negator of past action/experience 306
16.9.2 Affirmative-negative questions and past
action/experience 306
16.9.3 Another form of the question 307
16.10 W you to indicate ‘part of’ 307
16.11 W you as the first verb in a sequence 308
1 7 Verbs that take verbal or clausal objects 3 1 0
17.1 Intention and aspiration 311
17.1.1 Positive intentions and aspirations 311
17.1.2 Negative intentions 312
17.1.3 Uncertain aspirations 313
17.1.4 Group intentions 313
17.1.5 Voiced intentions 314
17.1.6 Intentions put into practice 314
17.1.7 Frustration and compulsion 315
17.2 Attitudes 315
17.3 Knowing and thinking 316
17.4 Appearance and value 317
17.5 Dummy verbs 318
18 Modal verbs 320
18.1 Semantic categories of modal verbs 320
18.1.1 Permission 320
18.1.2 Possibility 321
18.1.3 Probability 322
18.1.4 Ability or skill 324
18.1.5 Obligation 324
18.1.6 Wishing 326
18.1.7 Willingness 328
18.1.8 Necessity 328
18.1.9 Boldness 329
18.2 Speaker perspective of modal verbs 329
18.3 Negation of modal verbs 330
18.4 Grammatical orientation of modal verbs 332
Contents
xi
Contents |9 Telescopic constructions 333
19.1 Topic and sub-topic 333
19.2 Topic and subject 335
19.3 ‘Subject + predicate’ as topic 337
19.4 ‘(Subject) + predicate’ inserted between ‘topic’
and ‘comment’ 338
20 Narration, description, exposition and
evaluation 340
20.1 Narrative sentences 341
20.2 Descriptive sentences 347
20.3 Expository sentences 350
20.3.1 Topic-comment expository sentences 350
20.3.2 Subject-predicate expository sentences 352
20.3.3 Negation of expository sentences 354
20.4 Evaluative sentences 355
20.4.1 The modal verb evaluative 355
20.4.2 The modified adjective/complement
evaluative 356
20.5 Comparisons between sentence types 356
20.6 Concluding remarks 359
21 T /e-expository sentences 361
21.1 Change or reversal of a previous situation 362
21.2 Subjective endorsement behind the objective
explanation 365
21.3 Summing up after a series of actions 367
21.4 A rhythmic necessity for monosyllabic verbs or
verbalised adjectives 368
21.5 Two or three functions in one 369
21.6 /e-expository sentences and the four basic
sentence types 370
21.6.1 Expository sentences 370
21.6.2 Narrative sentences 371
21.6.3 Descriptive sentences 372
21.6.4 Evaluative sentences 373
xii
22
23
Conjunctions and conjunctives
375
22.1
Conjunctions that link words or phrases
375
22.1.1
The four conjunctions
375
22.1.2
TO er ‘also’
376
22.1.3
bing ‘also’
377
22.2
Clausal conjunctions and conjunctives
377
22.3
Clausal conjunctions and conjunctives in
semantic categories
378
22.3.1
Giving reasons: because, because of,
therefore
379
22.3.2
Making inferences: since
380
22.3.3
Expressing supposition: if
381
22.3.4
Stating conditions: only if, only when
383
22.3.5
Offering concessions: though,
although, yet
384
22.3.6
Defying setbacks: no matter
386
22.3.7
Clarifying time: when, as soon as,
after, before, etc.
387
22.3.8
Indicating preference: would rather
389
22.3.9
Elucidating one’s purpose: in order to,
so as to, so as not to
390
22.3.10
Encoding miscellaneous relational
concepts: apart from, let alone, otherwise
391
22.4
Correlations and parallels
392
22.5
Zero connectives
393
Interrogative sentences
395
23.1
Yes-no questions
395
23.2
Surmise questions
397
23.3
Suggestions in the form of questions
398
23.4
Alternative questions
399
23.5
Affirmative-negative questions
399
23.6
Question-word questions
401
23.7
Follow-
up queries with RjS ne
404
23.8
Rhetorical questions
405
23.9
Exclamatory questions
406
24
Contents
Imperatives and exclamations 407
24.1 Verbs in imperatives restricted to voluntary actions 408
24.2 Imperatives: beginners and end-particles 408
24.3 Spoken and written requests 412
24.4 Interjections and exclamatory expressions 414
24.5 Exclamations: particles and degree adverbials or
complements 420
25 Abbreviations and omissions
423
25.1 Abbreviations in answers to questions 423
25.2 Abbreviations in face-to-face exchanges 424
25.3 Abbreviations in comparisons 425
25.4 The hidden presence of the narrator in a narrative 425
25.5 Omissions in a discourse 426
Prosody and syntax
429
26.1
Setting the scene: an experiement with yl used
similarly to an indefinite article in English
429
26.2
End weight: the balance between the verb and
its direct object
432
26.2.1
The direct object as the end weight
432
26.2.2
The verb itself carries the end weight
434
26.2.3
Intransitive verbs at the end of sentences
436
26.2.4
Conclusion
437
26.3
The disyllabic rhythmic pattern of Chinese speech
437
26.3.1
The disyllabic rhythmic difference
between poetry and prose
438
26.3.2
Different words in the vocabulary
play different roles in the disyllabic
rhythmic structure
439
26.3.3
How disyllabic and monosyllabic
content and form words intertwine to
form a disyllabic rhythmic unit
441
26.4
Rhythms of commonly discernible syntactic patterns
445
26.4.1
‘Verb + object’ patterns
445
26.4.2
Verbal reduplications
446
26.4.3
The ‘attributive + headword’ patterns
446
26.5
Echoing patterns of singular rhythms
447
26.6
Two paragraphs by way of conclusion
448
27 Stylistic considerations in syntactic Contents
constructions 453
27.1 The presentational factor 453
27.1.1 Layered or sequential images 454
27.1.2 Reiteration for cumulative effect 455
27.1.3 Factorisation 457
27.1.4 Parallel matching 458
27.1.5 Inversion: attributives or adverbials
after their headwords 459
27.2 The rhetorical factor 460
27.2.1 Coupling: XY, XY 460
27.2.2 Progression: XY, XY, XY . . . 462
27.2.3 Echoing 463
27.2.4 Alternation: long and short sentences 464
27.3 What lies beyond? 465
28 Morphology and syntax (I) 466
28.1 Monosyllabic lexemes and morphemes of the lexicon 466
28.1.1 Where does the monosyllabic part of the
lexicon belong? 467
28.2 An overall view of the syntactically oriented part
of the lexicon 472
28.2.1 Syntactically oriented disyllabic lexemes 472
28.2.2 Modificational lexemes 482
28.2.3 Predicational lexemes 488
28.2.4 Governmental lexemes 492
28.2.5 Complemental lexemes 496
28.3 Syntactically oriented trisyllabic lexemes and
expressions 499
28.4 Syntactically oriented quadrisyllable
(or multisyllabic) words, expressions and idioms 503
28.4.1 Quadrisyllable (or multisyllabic) words
and expressions 503
28.4.2 Quadrisyllable idioms 505
28.5 Syntactically oriented multisyllabic sayings 508
xv
Contents 29 Morphology and syntax (II) 510
29.1 Sentential formulation devices 510
29.1.1 SVO word order 510
29.1.2 Formalized sets of grammatical words as
articulators 513
29.1.3 An illustrative example 514
29.2 A close examination of the interaction between
the microsyntax of lexemic formation and the
macrosyntax of sentential formulation 517
29.2.1 The syntactic behaviour of lexemes of the
juxtapositional type 518
29.2.2 The syntactic behaviour of lexemes
of the modificational type 520
29.2.3 The syntactic behaviour of lexemes
of the predicational type 523
29.2.4 The syntactic behaviour of lexemes
of the governmental type 529
29.2.5 The syntactic behaviour of lexemes
of the complemental type 537
29.3 Syntactic economy and retrieval system 547
30 Intralingual transpositions 551
30.1 Options influenced by different modes of expression 551
30.1.1 Narrating an action or stating a fact 552
30.1.2 The core structure behind ffi ba and ® bei 554
30.1.3 Transition from a narrative into a
description 557
30.1.4 Describing a static or dynamic
phenomenon 559
30.2 Choices made through stylistic considerations 562
30.2.1 Stylistic variations using verbs other
than *1 shi 563
30.2.2 Using the expository generator JIT-zil
shi bu shi ‘is it the case that’ as an alternative 566
30.3 Word order guided by difference in meaning,
emphasis or focus 569
30.3.1 Insight from structures used in an
apportioning exercise 570
30.3.2 A verb and its arguments 571
xvi 30.3.3 Dimensional measurements 575
30.3.4 shi used to pinpoint time, place, Contents
purpose, reason, etc.
577
30.3.5
The blurred juncture between negation
and affirmation
579
30.3.6
Noun becoming adjective or verb:
a word class shift
580
30.4
Synonymy that affects word order, formality,
collocation, mode of expression, individual
speech habit, etc.
580
3 1 Interlingual conversions
583
31.1
Context-dependent economy vs strict structural
completeness
585
31.1.1
Context- or cotext-dependent omission
of subjects and objects
586
31.1.2
Possessive indicators not indicating actual
possession are superfluous in Chinese
589
31.1.3
No syntactic device is necessary to link a
non-(pro)nominal subject or object to the
predicate verb
591
31.1.4
Habitual omission of conjunctions and
connectives
594
31.2
A time-sequenced string of verb-centred
constructions vs an organized combination of verbs,
participles, gerunds, infinitives, prepositions, etc.
597
31.3
Chinese verbs vs English prepositions
602
31.4
Chinese bamboos vs English trees
607
31.5
The inbuilt logic of the Chinese bamboo
609
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